1895 Nakamura Map of Formosa - a diplomatic ploy to take over Taiwan!

Japanese diplomatic and propaganda con-job on the Qing.

This 1895 Nakamura Yoshimatsu map of Taiwan is one of the most unsung but influential examples of persuasive cartography ever published. The large-scale map of Taiwan appeared at the end of the First Sino-Japanese War (August 1, 1894 - April 17, 1895), just prior to the Treaty of Shimonoseki (April 17, 1895) and the Japanese invasion of Taiwan (May 29, 1895 - October 21, 1895). The map, attributed to a likely fictional British naval officer named John Waters, employs creative cartography to reshape Taiwan, while retaining the overall area, effectively reducing the size of Qing-controlled Formosa and increasing the size of the ungoverned 'savage zones' - a ploy that played into the Japanese position that the Qing did not truly possess the island. It was likely presented at the Shimonoseki negotiations, where the Japanese were able to take advantage of Qing China's infamous lack of cartographic knowledge about Formosa to formally seize the island. This is the first edition of this map, published on January 20, 1895. It also accompanies the booklet Taiwan-tō Chishi-yō (臺灣島地誌撮要), a combination gazetteer of Taiwan and historiographical justification of the Japanese seizure of the island using Confucian political morality and just-war rhetoric.

A Closer Look

This map was likely a diplomatic and propaganda ploy prepared in anticipation of the Shimonoseki treaty negotiations, which included an Imperial Japanese demand for the Qing cession of Formosa/Taiwan. The map illustrates Taiwan/Formosa with a striking, malformed shoreline and inaccurate interior, expanding Tainan and Hsinchu harbors into vast bites, adding corresponding projections to eastern Formosa, and shifting the Central Mountains westwards. Shimizu further misses the geography of the Tamsui River and Taipei entirely, instead placing Tamsui on the island's northwest coast, where Hsinchu is actually located. A note near the inaccurately placed Tamsui refers to the Sino-French War (1884 - 1885); fighting did indeed take place near Tamsui, but a map of the conflict should have pointed Shimizu to the harbor's correct location. The capital of Taiwan (台灣府城) is noted in large letters at present-day Tainan, while smaller text (台灣府) more accurately indicates its location at today's Taichung, though even this was inaccurate, as the capital had moved to Taipei from Taichung in 1887. The deviations from established Formosa cartography, much of which was available to the Japanese, indicate an insidious intent - a diplomatic deception intended to diminish the territorial significance of Qing-administered Formosa, then limited to the coastal lowlands west of the Central Mountain Range, while at the same time exaggerating the eastern ungoverned tribal regions and retaining the island's overall area.

The Inaccuracies: Mistakes or Deceitful Propaganda?

The map is rife with errors and inaccuracies that are difficult to explain, especially when the inset regional map in the lower left presents a far more accurate picture of Taiwan/Formosa. We are also aware of c. 1874 manuscript maps collected by the Japanese that are far more accurate and detailed. Curiously, the errors are most pronounced on the historically well-mapped western or 'Chinese' side of the island. As previously noted, the cartographer exaggerates the size of Tainan and Hsinchu harbors, transforming them into vast bights, while at the same time mapping corresponding land projections on the eastern side of the island. Given that the western bays are mirrored by eastern projections, one might be tempted to assign this to a series of inaccurate measurements.

There are several hints that this is not the case. First, Formosa is mapped correctly in the inset regional map in the lower left. Moreover, we are aware that the Japanese had accurate European maps of Taiwan collected for the Japanese Punitive Expedition of 1874. Second, the enlarged bays correspond to the largest and most important harbors in Taiwan at the time, Tainan and Hsinchu. The mismapping of these harbors dually reduced the apparent size of western Formosa, which was predominantly Qing Chinese, and correspondingly increased the size of the 'uncivilized' tribal lands of eastern Formosa - long a thorn in the side of Qing provincial administrators.

While this map was printed near the end of the First Sino-Japanese War, in February 1895, the powers had yet to sit down at the Shimonoseki negotiating tables, which did not occur until March 20, 1895. Nonetheless, Japanese interest in Formosa was well-established. Near the end of the Sino-Japanese War, the U.S. Minister in Beijing, Colonel Charles Denby, wrote, 'China ceding Taiwan to Japan was sure to be a condition of any peace settlement.'

During the negotiations at Shimonoseki, the Qing were initially unwilling to surrender Taiwan, recognizing its strategic military and commercial potential. Nonetheless, they ultimately relented. One imagines the Japanese negotiator pulling out this map, proudly proclaiming that it was a 'new' survey made by a 'British Royal Navy' officer and so sure to be accurate. Then, saying, 'Look how small the area of western Formosa under your control is! Look at these dangerous tribal lands in the mountains, who are always at war with you! We are doing you a favor…'

Japanese Occupation of Taiwan

Japan occupied Taiwan from 1895 to 1945. Japanese naval forces invaded Taiwan in May 1895, less than a month after the Treaty of Shimonoseki (April 17, 1895). The occupation of Taiwan fit into Imperial Japan's Nanshin-ron (南進論) or Southern Expansion Doctrine, which argued that Taiwan, Southeast Asia, and the Philippines were essential to Japan's economic and territorial growth. Katsura Taro (1747 - 1913), a Yamaguchi Samurai, wrote of Taiwan's significance, 'It is not only the most ideal location for expanding power to southern China, but also the islands of Southeast Asia.' Although there were some indigenous attempts at resistance and self-governance, including the founding of the 'Republic of Formosa,' Asia's first republic, the Japanese were quickly able to suppress Formosan nationalism. In less than 6 months, Japanese naval forces achieved, with the arguable exception of the tribal central highlands, full control of the island. Taiwan was Japan's first major extraterritorial holding, and Imperial Japan worked diligently to transform it into a showpiece 'model colony.' Japan lavished resources on the island's economy, including public works, industrial development, and cultural Japanization. After an initial period of unrest, the Japanese were generally effective in Taiwan, where they were, for the most part, well received by the Taiwanese, who appreciated their advanced technology and economic growth. Of course, the darker side of Imperial Japanese investment in Taiwan was its planned essential role in supporting Japanese military aggression in the Asia-Pacific.

The Mysterious Source: John Walter / Water

Text on the map claims the cartography is copied from work done by a former British Royal Navy officer named John Walter or Water (ジョン・ウォートル), who supposedly surveyed Taiwan in 1894. We have been unable to trace Walter/Water/Waters or any survey work completed by this individual. Certainly, the British Royal Navy was active in around Formosa from 1817 and had successfully compiled a respectable map of the coast by 1867, but there is no record of 'Walter,' or any variant thereof, associated with any of the survey teams. We did identify a marine engineer by the name of 'John Walker' who was active in the Japan trade in 1894 when he was involved with a shipwreck of the Japanese-owned steamer Nagato Maru. Whoever 'Walter' was, he was either a terrible hydrographer or intentionally deceitful. Walter's map was translated into Japanese by Matsumoto Nikichi. It is likely that 'Walter' was a fiction created by the Japanese publisher Nakamura Yoshimatsu (中村芳松) to confer British legitimacy upon the map.

The Inset Maps

From just under the title block, the insets are, clockwise,

• 江蘇島 ('Jiangsu Island' - perhaps another cartographic myth that was seemingly meant to be located at the mouth of the Yangtze River)
• 海南島 (Hainan Island - also misshapen, though not as badly as Taiwan on the main map)
• 舟山島 (Zhoushan Island, oriented with east at top)
• 菲律賓群島 (Philippine Islands, north oriented)
• 澎湖島 (Penghu Island - supposedly, does not clearly resemble any of the Penghu Islands, and indicating a field for fishing sardines or herring 鰯魚場 off the east coast)
• 竹山島 (Zhushan Island - probably meant to represent three close islands of Upper, Middle, and Lower Zhushan 上竹山岛, 中竹山岛, 下竹山岛 off the coast of Ningbo).
• 崇明島 (Chongming Island)
• 普陀山島 (Putuoshan Island - identified as Putuoshan, but more closely resembles nearby Zhuijiajian Island, a strange error given the island's long connection with Japanese Buddhism; north oriented)
• 南澳島 (Nan'ao Island) - Small Island in Shantou County, directly west of Taiwan on China coast - oriented to the south.

As inaccurate as some of these inset maps are, these islands were important for the coastal defenses of the Qing Dynasty, though some had fallen into disrepair and, as the Opium Wars illustrated, lacking when pitted against modern warships. All were strategically important for controlling major river systems, like the Yangtze, or as stepping stones into China and Southeast Asia.

Taiwan-tō Chishi-yō (臺灣島地誌撮要) : Gazeteer and Justification

This is the only example of this map we've found that also includes its original accompanying booklet, Taiwan-tō Chishi-yō (臺灣島地誌撮要), edited by Jōsai Inshi (城西隠士) and printed by Maeda Kikumatsu (前田菊松). This work, comprising 18 pages as well as front and back covers, combines the features of a gazetteer - describing the island of Formosa, its people, history, climate, and geography - and a justification for the Japanese takeover. The writing takes on a historiographic tone that is at once pro-Japanese, anti-Western, and anti-Chinese. The text includes a long historical discussion (台灣往事ノ事實), claimed to have originally been written in Chinese, about the conquest of Formosa by the Zheng Chenggong (鄭成功 / Koxinga), who drove out the Dutch and established the Kingdom of Tungning in opposition to the Manchu-Qing dominion. It emphasizes that Koxinga was half-Japanese, underscoring long-standing Japanese claims to the island. It goes on to describe the 1874 Japanese Punitive Expedition to Formosa (Mudan Incident; 牡丹社事件) as a way to illustrate the weakness of Qing administration on Formosa, and the tide of Japanese victories during the First Sino-Japanese War (1894 - 1895). Japan's rise to power is described in historiographical terms reflective of proto-colonial Confucian ideology, suggesting a natural and moral act aligned with Heaven's mandate and global progress. We believe this booklet to be historically important and have accordingly included a full scan of all text.

The work features a Latin-text letter written by the supposed Waters to the map's translator Matsumoto in Meiji-period pseudo-English, a type of writing that emerged in Japan during the late 19th century by printers, scholars, or translators who were imitating Western epistolary style without a mastery of English grammar or idiom. It is difficult to unpack, but not as random as it might seem, as it reflects phonetic approximations, literal Japanese-to-English constructions, and transliteration errors relating to typesetting and translation. Here is a detailed breakdown for anyone interested:

Original:
Famollin an permae of ineith an confu nesh. Dancing the noneefr Formosa camin gaull an wacuae zantio from 1,8 91 wakele the meleletu Saefegle yme 1,8 93 to year antnal Maculte the hotne porhanis daiotls Kaiticimong fand waris ueetering a clucistols the Inlmus burnis is writmong I isug Formosa me hastrsicr mope of Formosa…

Interpretation:
Following my previous communication and confirmation, I have completed a map of Formosa (Taiwan). The map was begun in 1891 and completed in 1893. It was compiled from various sources and records, and I have written about Formosa according to what I have learned.

Original:
Mr Shwmekar donbul it is wrvelnmirn yarsllkuars an melgring the mina nawanar I am cilicius…

Interpretation:
Mr. Schumacher [possibly a Western collaborator] assisted with verifying various places and names. I am conscious that there remain some inaccuracies.

Original:
…sauteing a coliu hawakar barissne necely is me morssnsiun uariyoxoson geldoos…

Interpretation:
I have carefully adjusted the boundaries and coastlines according to the most recent observations and reports.

Original:
…I am stonjculitng uariyons of colusmitonan me sosgle devly I amis on wakar meclmovon is ynlrsh hajntons Formosa glateka donlee overoon it is we melestls…

Interpretation:
I have studied various colonial maps and compared them with my own field notes on Formosa. The final map is, I believe, accurate and complete.

Original:
…ranpaing tilmaghinon can I enustar me waodus poceur a gastr yon we atowan the endsens to hadalker is hadlesong…

Interpretation:
I hope that this map may assist navigators, travelers, and those engaged in geographical studies of this island.

Original:
…Map of Formosa they eljm haigantor and sievalls we kändree the siluninoe to elmosting to me coclets goos einding I dont no…

Interpretation:
If there are errors or omissions in the details, I ask readers to kindly inform me.

Original:
The govarste a coste is pawales and nobul been budstor as you roomels of its nobul; be besece voris and eutling I am ontame gondore gosster of yoorastr…

Interpretation:
The government has not supported the cost of publication; I have produced it privately and at my own expense.

Original:
…no good ponmetrs cozetee an inkalsu which has cosepte for yaluston been wandrss the bifalermin an dangui it is masefin goods is Geography serins England, and University of Cambridge sekulinte…

Interpretation:
Nevertheless, I hope it will be found useful by students of geography both in England and at the University of Cambridge, where modern geographical studies are flourishing.

Original:
…Year of 1894. Mr. N. Matsumoto, Osaka Japan. Woutll, Corea.

Interpretation:
Mr. N. Matsumoto, Osaka, Japan - 1894.
Woutul, Korea.

On the booklet's back cover, opposite this faux English when fully opened, is an introduction is a list of maps sold by Nakamura, beginning with the present map, again described as being prepared by 'Former British Navy Captain John Waters.' However, the first page of the booklet is the Japanese version of the faux English letter on the cover, which presents Waters as a missionary rather than a sea captain. Here is a rough translation of that text, again presented as a letter to Matsumoto:

I stayed on the island of Taiwan from February 1888 to May 1893, primarily to proselytize to the Aborigines, hoping to civilize even a single person and open their hearts to serve God, so that they might pray for forgiveness for their great sins. In order to educate them, one must first understand the conditions of the land. Therefore, I travelled widely, trekking through mountains, rivers, and coastal areas, beginning my journey into the Aboriginal lands on January 12, 1890. Although I encountered many unexpected obstacles and could not study the geography as thoroughly as I had intended, I finally succeeded in producing this map after spending a full two years on it. However, I still cannot call it complete. Nevertheless, it is my greatest honor that this map won the support of the Royal Geographical Society and was adopted for teaching by the Department of Geography at Cambridge University. Now, upon your request, I am happy to have this map distributed in your noble country. I guarantee that there are no errors in the map, so please be at ease… [Thank you and wishing you good health, etc., etc.]

- John Waters, Keijo, Korea

What Does It All Mean?

Taking all this information into account, we can surmise that there was in fact no John Waters and that he was a fabrication invented by the publisher Nakamura to give a veneer of legitimacy to a map that was likely intended as a ruse and a bludgeon in Japanese negotiations with the Qing over Taiwan. The faux English preface was meant to convince a non-English speaker that 'Waters' was who he claimed to be. However, Nakamura could not quite get the story straight and probably unintentionally refers to Waters as a missionary while elsewhere maintaining that he was a sea captain.

Another possibility is that Nakamura was simply looking to sell maps to a Japanese audience interested in Taiwan but poorly informed about it. In this case, Nakamura was a complete fraud and just looking to capitalize on a popular topic, but his works on cartography and geography preceding 1895 would seem to disprove this argument, as he was already well informed about Taiwan's and China's geography and would have no interest in deliberately publishing an inaccurate map. Therefore, we can conclude that there was more espionage than incompetence in the creation of this very curious map and its fictitious author, 'John Waters.'

Publication History and Census

This map was prepared (edited) by Shimizu Tsunetaro and printed by Nakata Sadanori (中田貞矩), seemingly an employee of the publisher, Nakamura Yoshimatsu (中村芳松). The present example is likely the first edition, privately published by Nakamura Yoshimatsu (as Nakamura Shōbidō, 中村鐘美堂, named on the cover). As mentioned above, it is supposedly based on a British map by John Walter or Waters, as translated by Matsumoto Nikichi. The map was published in Osaka, Japan, on January 20, 1895 (Meiji 28). The accompanying booklet, titled Taiwan-tō Chishi-yō (臺灣島地誌撮要), was published shortly after on February 5, Meiji 28 (1895). The map had a small print run and a very short period, less than a month, of relevance, making it quite rare. There were also smaller editions published, which are slightly more common. Of this wall map size, we are aware of examples at the National Diet Library, Waseda University, the National Archives of Japan, the National Museum of Taiwan History, and the Taiwan National Archives, while the Academia Sinica separately catalogs Taiwan-tō Chishi-yō (OCLC 1461492367), seemingly without the map.

Cartographers

Nakamura Yoshimatsu (中村芳松; fl. c. 1882 - 1906) was a major Japanese book and map publisher active in Osaka during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The firm's output varied, but mostly consisted of maps, geographical texts, and works discussing or glorifying the military.   Further Details...

Shimizu Tsunetaro (清水常太郎; fl. c. 1892 - 1905) was a Japanese cartographer active in the 1890s based in Kyoto and Osaka. Little else is known about his life and work. His maps coincided with Japan's imperial expansion, focusing on Taiwan, Korea, and China, though he also produced maps of Japanese cities such as Nagasaki and Saga.   Further Details...

Matsumoto Nikichi (松本仁吉; fl. c. 1892 - 1897) was a Japanese geographer, translator, and educator based in Osaka. Little is known about his life, but Matsumoto was quite active during the 1890s, authoring several school textbooks and translating maps, including a very early Japanese map of Taiwan after the island was annexed in 1895. He also published a detailed geography of the islands of Taiwan the same year (臺灣島地誌撮要附錄), indicating he was something of a Taiwan expert just as Japan took control of the territory. The following year, he prepared the New Pocket Atlas (袖珍萬國地圖), based on John Bartholomew's Pocket Atlas of the World, which Matsumoto translated into Japanese and slightly modified. He also appears to have co-authored a four volume series of commentaries on Tang Dynasty poetry the same year, reflecting a broad range of interests and talents.   Further Details...

Condition

Very good. Slight wear on old fold lines.

References

OCLC 675441082. National Taiwan History Museum 0000228540. Kyoto University Comprehensive Museum Collection. Keating, J. F., The Mapping of Taiwan: Desired Economies, Coveted Geographies, page 98. National Diet Library: YG913-2251. Hiroshima University Central Library: 033:180100013771.

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